In general, existential threats are those that may potentially result in the extinction of the entire human species, if not significantly endanger its living population. Among the said threats include, but not limited to, pandemics and the impacts of a technological singularity. As regards pandemics, significant work has already been done on how to mitigate, if not prevent, the aftereffects of this type of disaster. For one, certain problem areas on how to properly manage pandemic responses have already been identified, like the following: (a) not being able to learn from previous experiences, (b) the inability to act on warning signals, and (c) the failure to reach a global consensus on a problem (i.e., in a timely manner). In terms of a singularity, however, it may be said that further research is still needed, specifically on how to aptly respond to its projected negative outcomes. In this paper, by treating the three problem areas noted above as preliminary assessment measures of a country’s capacity to coordinate a national response to large-scale disasters, we examine the readiness of the Philippines in preparing for an intelligence explosion. By citing certain instances of how the said country, specifically its national government, faced the coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic, it puts forward the idea that the likely Philippine disaster response towards a singularity needs to be worked on, appealing for a more comprehensive assessment of such for a more informed response plan.
Keywords: technological singularity, artificial intelligence, COVID-19, existential threat, Philippine disaster responseAlcantara, P. (2014). Lessons Learned from the Philippine Government’s response to typhoon Haiyan. Journal of Business Continuity & Emergency Planning, 7(4), 335–346.
Alcayna, T., Bollettino, V., Dy, P., & Vinck, P. (2016). Resilience and disaster trends in the Philippines: Opportunities for national and local capacity building. PLOS Currents Disasters, 8. https://doi.org/10.1371/currents.dis.4a0bc960866e53bd6357ac135d740846
Anderson, M., & Anderson, S. L. (Eds.). (2011). Machine ethics. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Araja, R. N. (2018, September 11). NHA flagged for failure to finish ‘Yolanda’ housing projects. Manila Standard. https://manilastandard.net/news/national/275303/nha-flagged-for-failure-to-finish-yolanda-housing-projects.html
Beltran, M. (2020, May 12). The Philippines’ pandemic response: A tragedy of errors. The Diplomat. https://thediplomat.com/2020/05/the-philippines-pandemic-response-a-tragedy-of-errors/
Bollettino, V., Alcayna-Stevens, T., Sharma, M., Dy, P., Pham, P., & Vinck, P. (2020). Public perception of climate change and disaster preparedness: Evidence from the Philippines. Climate Risk Management, 30, Article 100250. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crm.2020.100250
Borja, N. A. (2020, June 18). [OPINION] The perils of government procurement in the pandemic. Rappler. https://www.rappler.com/voices/imho/opinion-perils-government-procurement-pandemic
Bostrom, N. (2002). Existential Risks: Analyzing human extinction scenarios and related hazards. Journal of Evolution and Technology, 9.
Bostrom, N. (2006). Dinosaurs, dodos, humans? Global Agenda, 230–231.
Bostrom, N. (2017). Strategic implications of openness in AI development. Global Policy, 8(2), 135–148. https://doi.org/10.1111/1758-5899.12403
Boyd, M., & Wilson, N. (2021). Failures with COVID-19 at the international level must not be repeated in an era facing global catastrophic biological risks. Australia and New Zealand Journal of Public Health, 45(2), 184. https://doi.org/10.1111/1753-6405.13082
Boyles, R. J. M. (2018). A case for Mmachine ethics in modeling human-Level Iintelligent Aagents. Kritike, 12(1), 182–200. https://doi.org/10.25138/12.1.a9
Brower R., Magno F., & Dilling, J. (2014). Evolving and implementing a new disaster management paradigm: The case of the Philippines. In N. Kapucu & K.T. Liou K. (Eds.), Disaster and development: Examining global issues and cases (pp. 289–313). Heidelberg: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-04468-2_17
Buan, L. (2020, March 26). Duterte Ggov`t had emergency procurement powers as early as March 13. Rappler. https://www.rappler.com/nation/duterte-administration-had-emergency-procurement-powers-as-early-as-march-13-2020
Cervantes, J. A., López, S., Rodríguez, L. F., Cervantes, S., Cervantes, F., & Ramos, F. (2019). Artificial moral agents: A survey of the current status. Science and Engineering Ethics, 26, 501–532. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11948-019-00151-x
Chalmers, D. (2010). The singularity: A philosophical analysis. Journal of Consciousness Studies, 17(9-10), 7–65.
Chowell, G., Ammon, C. E., Hengartner, N. W., & Hyman, J. M. (2007). Estimating the reproduction number from the initial phase of the Spanish flu pandemic waves in Geneva, Switzerland. Mathematical Biosciences and Engineering, 4(3), 457–470. https://doi.org/10.3934/mbe.2007.4.457
Concepcion, R. S., Bedruz, R. A. R., Culaba, A. B., Dadios, E. P., & Pascua, A. R. A.R. (2019). The technology aAdoption and governance of artificial intelligence in the Philippines. Paper presented in the 2019 IEEE 11th International Conference on Humanoid, Nanotechnology, Information Technology, Communication and Control, Environment, and Management (HNICEM) (pp. 1–10) held on November 29 to December 1, 2019. https://doi.org/10.1109/HNICEM48295.2019.9072725
Congress of the Philippines. (2003). An Act Providing for the Modernization, Standardization and Regulation of the Procurement Activities of the Government and for other Other Purposes, Republic Act No. 9184. Republic of the Philippines (2003). https://www.neda.gov.ph/wp-content/uploads/2013/12/R.A.-9184.doc
Congress of the Philippines. (2020). An Act Declaring the Existence of a National Emergency Arising from the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (Covid-19) Situation and a National Policy in Connection Therewith, and Authorizing the President of the Republic of the Philippines for a Limited Period and Subject to Restrictions, to Exercise Powers Necessary and Proper to Carry Out the Declared National Policy and for Other Purposes, Republic Act No. 11469. Republic of the Philippines (2020). https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/downloads/2020/03mar/20200324-RA-11469-RRD.pdf
Cooper, D. H., & Nagel, J. (2021in press). Lessons from the pandemic: Climate change and COVID-19. International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJSSP-07-2020-0360
de Leon, E.G., & Pittock, J. (2016). Integrating Climate Change Adaptation and Climate-related Disaster Risk-reduction Policy in Developing Countries: A Case Study in the Philippines. Climate and Development, 9(5): 471–478. https://doi.org/10.1080/17565529.2016.1174659
del Mundo, F. (2014, January 6). ‘Yolanda’ bunkhouses are overpriced. Philippine Daily Inquirer. https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/558299/yolanda-bunkhouses-overpriced
dela Cruz, E. (2020, February 2). Coronavirus Kkills Chinese Mman in Philippines, Ffirst Ddeath outside China. Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-health-philippines/coronavirus-kills-chinese-man-in-philippines-first-death-outside-china-idINKBN1ZW03L
Department of Defense. (2012, November 21). Autonomy in Weapon Systems (DOD Directive 3000.09). http://bit.ly/2Ne9bg4
Eden, A. H., Steinhart, E., Pearce, D., & Moor, J. H. (2013). Singularity Hypotheses: An Overview. In A. H. Eden, J. H. Moor, J. H. Søraker, & E. Steinhart. (Eds.), Singularity Hypotheses: A Scientific and Philosophical Assessment (pp. 1–12). New York: Springer Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-32560-1
Federigan, L. O. (2020, December 26). Unpacking Iinsights on the Department of Disaster Resilience. The Manila Times. https://www.manilatimes.net/2020/12/26/business/green-business/unpacking-insights-on-the-department-of-disaster-resilience-2/817625/
Fernandez, B. (2020, May 19). Anti-covid Supplies Overpriced? Business Mirror. https://businessmirror.com.ph/2020/05/19/anti-covid-supplies-overpriced/
Flores, H. (2020, January 16). Surprised? ‘Taal Volcano Eruption Warning Uup Since March 2019’. ONE News. https://www.onenews.ph/surprised-taal-volcano-eruption-warning-up-since-march-2019
Gaillard J., Liamzon, C., & Villanueva, J. (2007). ‘Natural’ disaster? A Retrospect into the Causes of the late-2004 Typhoon Disaster in Eastern Luzon, Philippines. Environmental Hazards, 7(4), 257–270. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envhaz.2006.11.002
Galvez, D. (2020, November 11). DOH Exploring Law Exemptions for COVID-19 Vaccine Procurement. Philippine Daily Inquirer. https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/1359172/doh-exploring-law-exemptions-for-covid-19-vaccine-procurement
Gealogo, F. (2009). The Philippines in the World of the Influenza Pandemic of 1918-1919. Philippine Studies, 57(2), 261–292.
Goertzel, B. (2014). Artificial General Intelligence: Concept, State of the Heart, and Future Prospects. Journal of Artificial General Intelligence, 5(1), 1–46. https://doi.org/10.2478/jagi-2014-0001
Good, I. J. (19651966). Speculations Concerning the First Ultraintelligent Machine. In F. Alt & M. Rubinoff (Eds.), Advances in Computers, 6, 31–88. New York: Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2458(08)60418-0
Gagalac, R. (2009, October 1). ‘Gov’t, Private Developers Liable for Flood Damage`. (2009, October 1). ABS-CBN News. https://news.abs-cbn.com/nation/09/30/09/govt-private-developers-liable-flood-damage
Hall, R. A. (2010). Governance during Disasters: Intra-Governmental and Non-Governmental Coordination in the 2006 Guimaras Oil Spill. Philippine Political Science Journal, 31(1), 117–152. https://doi.org/10.1163/2165025X-03101005
Hoffmann, R., & Muttarak, R. (2017). Learn from the Past, Prepare for the Future: Impacts of Education and Experience on Disaster Preparedness in the Philippines and Thailand. World Development, 96, 32–51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2017.02.016
Hoffman, S. J. (2016). How Many People Must Die from Pandemics Before the World Learns? Global Challenges, 1(1), 30–32. https://doi.org/10.1002/gch2.1011
Hoffman, S. J., & Røttingen, J. A. (2012). Assessing Implementation Mechanisms for an International Agreement on Research and dDevelopment for Health Products. Bulletin of the World Health Organisation, 90(11), 854–863. https://doi.org/10.2471/BLT.12.109827
Independent Evaluation of Global COVID-19 Response Announced. (2020, July 9). World Health Organization. https://www.who.int/news/item/09-07-2020-independent-evaluation-of-global-covid-19-response-announced
Italy, Spain and UK Healthcare Struggling to Cope. (2020, April 3). FR24 News. https://www.fr24news.com/a/2020/04/italy-spain-and-uk-healthcare-struggling-to-cope.html
Jones, D. S. (2013). Reforming Public Procurement in the Philippines: Progress and Constraints. International Journal of Public Sector Management, 26(5), 375–400.
Kim, J., Torneo, A. R., & Yang, S. (2019). Philippine Readiness for the 4th Industrial Revolution: A Case Study. Asia-Pacific Social Science Review, 19(1), 139–153.
King, B. A., Hammond, T., & Harrington, J. (2017). Disruptive Technology: Economic Consequences of Artificial Intelligence and the Robotics Revolution. Journal of Strategic Innovation and Sustainability, 12(2), 53–67. https://doi.org/10.33423/jsis.v12i2.801
König, P. D., & Wenzelburger, G. (2020). Opportunity for Renewal or Disruptive force? How Artificial Intelligence alters Democratic Politics. Government Information Quarterly, 37(3), Article 101489. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.giq.2020.101489
Krakovna, V. (2020, May 31). Possible Takeaways from the Coronavirus Pandemic for Slow AI Takeoff. Victoria Krakovna. https://vkrakovna.wordpress.com/2020/05/31/possible-takeaways-from-the-coronavirus-pandemic-for-slow-ai-takeoff/
Kurzweil, R. (2005). The Singularity is Near: When Humans Transcend Biology. New York: Viking Penguin.
Lasco, G. (2020). Medical Populism and the COVID-19 Pandemic. Global Public Health, 15(10), 1417–1429. https://doi.org/10.1080/17441692.2020.1807581
Lasco, G., & Curato, N. (2019). Medical Populism. Social Science & Medicine, 221, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2018.12.006
Lasco, R. D., Pulhin, F. B., Jaranilla-Sanchez, P. A., Delfino, R. J. P., Gerpacio, R., & Garcia, K. (2009). Mainstreaming Adaptation in Developing Countries: The Case of the Philippines. Climate and Development, 1(2), 130–146. https://doi.org/10.3763/cdev.2009.0009
Lee, S., Yeo, J., & Na, C. (2020). Learning From the Past: Distributed Cognition and Crisis Management Capabilities for Tackling COVID-19. The American Review of Public Administration, 50(6-7), 729–735. http://doi.org/10.1177/0275074020942412
Lemire, F. (2020). COVID-19: Early Reflections. Canadian Family Physician, 66(5), 380.
Lin, L. (2020, January 12). China Reports first death from mysterious Pneumonia Outbreak. Bloomberg. https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-01-11/china-reports-first-death-from-mysterious-pneumonia-outbreak
Luna, F. (2020, March 12). Metro Manila Qquarantined for 30 Ddays as Aalarm Hheightens over COVID-19. The Philippine Star. https://www.philstar.com/headlines/2020/03/12/2000209/travel-and-manila-suspended-march-15-code-red-sublevel-2-raised-over-covid-19
Manguerra, M. V., Cabatuan, M. K., & Culaba, A. B. (2020). Trends in Artificial Intelligence in the Philippines for Biomedical Engineering and Public Health Emergency Applications: A Review. Innovative Technology & Management Journal, 3, 6–14.
Mercado, N. A. (2020, December 22). Senators Push to Ban Travelers from Europe amid New COVID-19 Variant. Philippine Daily Inquirer. https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/1374788/senators-push-to-ban-travelers-from-europe-amid-new-covid-19-variant
Meskó, B., Hetényi, G., & Győrffy, Z. (2018). Will Artificial Intelligence Solve the human resource crisis in Healthcare? BMC Health Services Research, 18, Article 545. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-018-3359-4
Musico, J. (2020, January 12). China, 4 other cCountries included on PH Travel Restriction List. Philippine News Agency. https://www.pna.gov.ph/articles/1127104
Nonato, V. F. (2018, September 12). COA: ‘Yolanda’ Projects Split to Favor 1 Builder. Philippine Daily Inquirer. https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/1031050/coa-yolanda-projects-split-to-favor-1-builder
Nonviolence International Southeast Asia. (2020). Lethal Autonomous Weapons Systems: A Primer for Philippine Policy. Bangkok: Nonviolence International Southeast Asia. https://www.stopkillerrobots.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/NISEA-PHILIPPINE-PRIMER.pdf
Park, J., & Chung, E. (2021). Learning from Past Pandemic Governance: Early Response and Public-Private Partnerships in Testing of COVID-19 in South Korea. World Development, 137, Article 105198. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2020.105198
Parmet, W. E., & Rothstein, M. A. (2018). The 1918 Influenza Pandemic: Lessons Learned and not–Introduction to the Special Section. American Journal of Public Health, 108(x), 1435–1436. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2018.304695
Pergolizzi, J.V., LeQuang, J., Taylor, R., Wollmuth, C., Nalamachu, M., Varrassi, G., Christo, P., Breve, F., & Magnusson, P. (2021). Four Pandemics: Lessons Learned, Lessons Lost. Signa Vitae, 17(1), 1–5. https://doi.org/10.22514/sv.2020.16.0096
Santiago, J. S. S., Manuela, W. S., Jr., Tan, M. L. L., Sañez, S. K., & Tong, A. Z. U. (2016). Of Timelines and Timeliness: Lessons from Typhoon Haiyan in Early Disaster Response. Disasters, 40(4), 644–667. https://doi.org/10.1111/disa.12178
Saracci, R. (2020). Prevention in COVID-19 Time: From Failure to Future. Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health, 74(9), 689–691. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/jech-2020-214839
Sato, T., & Nakasu, T. (2011). 2009 Typhoon Ondoy Flood Disasters in Metro Manila. Natural Disaster Research Report of the National Research Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Prevention, 45, 63–74.
Saqr, M., & Wasson, B. (2020). COVID-19: Lost Opportunities and Lessons for the Future. International Journal of Health Sciences, 14(3), 4–6.
Some 50 Countries Start Covid-19 Vaccinations. (2020, December 31). Agence France-Presse. https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20201231-some-50-countries-start-covid-19-vaccinations
Sotala, K. (2018). Disjunctive Scenarios of Catastrophic AIR risk. In R. V. Yampolskiy (Ed.), Artificial Intelligence Safety and Security (pp. 315–337). Boca Raton: CRC Press.
The Independent Panel for Pandemic Preparedness and Response. (2021). COVID-19: Make it the Last Pandemic. https://theindependentpanel.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/COVID-19-Make-it-the-Last-Pandemic_final.pdf
Tiglao, R. D. (2020, April 13). Pandemic Kills 80,000 Filipinos. The Manila Times. https://www.manilatimes.net/2020/04/13/opinion/columnists/topanalysis/pandemic-kills-80000-filipinos/713271/
Tomacruz, S. (2021, January 11). Senators urge Govt to Allow LGUs, Private Sector to Secure their own Vaccine Deals. Rappler. https://www.rappler.com/nation/senators-urge-government-allow-lgus-private-sector-secure-own-vaccine-deals
Turchin, A., & Denkenberger, D. (2018). Classification of global catastrophic risks Connected with Artificial Intelligence. AI & Society, 35, 147–163. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00146-018-0845-5
van Wynsberghe, A., & Robbins, S. (2019). Critiquing the Reasons for Making Artificial Moral Agents. Science and Engineering Ethics, 25, 719–735. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11948-018-0030-8
Vinge, V. (1993). The Coming of Technological Singularity: How to Survive in the Post-Human Era. In Vision 21: Interdisciplinary Science and Engineering in the Era of Cyberspace: Proceedings of a Symposium Cosponsored by NASA Lewis Research Center and the Ohio Aerospace Institute (pp. xx–xx). Washington: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Office of Management, Scientific and Technical Information Program.
Wallach, W., & Allen, C. (2009). Moral Machines: Teaching Robots Right From Wrong. New York: Oxford University Press.
Walsh, T. (2017). The Singularity May Never Be Near. AI Magazine, 38(3), 58–62. https://doi.org/10.1609/aimag.v38i3.2702
Watkins, J. (2020). Preventing a COVID-19 Pandemic. The BMJ, 368, 1–2. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.m810
Wee, S. (2020, January 21). Japan and Thailand Confirm New Cases of Chinese Coronavirus. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/01/15/world/asia/coronavirus-japan-china.html
Winter, O., (Ed.). (2020). Existential Threat Scenarios to the State of Israel. Tel Aviv University: Institute for National Security Studies.
Winter, O., Michael, K., & Shiloah, A. (2020). Introduction. In O. Winter (Ed.), Existential Threat Scenarios to the State of Israel (pp. 13–26). Tel Aviv University,: Institute for National Security Studies.
World Bank. (2005). Natural Disaster Risk Management in the Philippines: Reducing Vulnerability. Washington: World Bank. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/8754
Yampolskiy, R., & Fox, J. (2012). Safety Engineering for artificial General Intelligence. Topoi, 32, 217–226. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11245-012-9128-9
Yap, D. (2021, January 12). Senators Question Vaccine `Monopoly’: ‘Do You want to Play God?‘. Philippine Daily Inquirer. https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/1382439/senators-question-vaccine-monopoly