This study attempts to investigate how ethical leadership enhances nurses’ in-role and extra-role performances with the mediation of psychological empowerment. We used a cross-sectional time-lag design and collected data from 371 nurses and their immediate supervisors through a questionnaire-based survey. The data on ethical leadership and psychological empowerment were collected from nurses at T1, whereas data on in-role and extra-role performance were collected from their immediate supervisors at T2. The results revealed positive associations of ethical leadership with psychological empowerment, in-role, and extra-role performance. Further, hierarchical regression confirms the mediating role of psychological empowerment between the associations of ethical leadership with in-role and extra-role performance.
Keywords: Ethical leadership, In-role performance, Extra-role performance, COVID-19, healthcareAbuzaid, A. N. (2018). The relationship between ethical leadership and organizational
commitment in the banking sector of Jordan. Journal of Economic and Administrative Sciences, 34(3), 187-–203. https://doi.org/10.1108/JEAS-01-2018-0006.
Afsar, B., & Shahjehan, A. (2018). Linking ethical leadership and moral voice. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 36(6), 775-–793. https://doi.org/10.1108/LODJ-01-2018-0015.
Agle, B. R., Nagarajan, N. J., Sonnenfeld, J. A., and & Srinivasan, D. (2006). Does CEO charisma matter? An empirical analysis of the relationships among organizational performance, environmental uncertainty, and top management team perceptions of CEO charisma. Academy of Management Journal, 49(1), 161-–174. https://doi.org/10.5465/amj.2006.20785800.
Ahmad, I., & Gao, Y. (2018). Ethical leadership and work engagement: The roles of psychological empowerment and power distance orientation. Management Decision, 56(9), 1991-–2005. https://doi.org/10.1108/MD-02-2017-0107
Ahmad, I., Donia, M.B.L., Khan, A. and Waris, M. (2019). Do as I say and do as I do? The mediating role of psychological contract fulfillment in the relationship between ethical leadership and employee extra-role performance. Personnel Review, 48(1), 98-117. https://doi.org/10.1108/PR-12-2016-0325.
Ahmad, R., and & Islam, T. (2019). Does work and family imbalance impact the satisfaction of police force employees? A ‘net or a web’ model. Policing: International Journal, 42(2), 585-–597. https://doi.org/10.1108/PIJPSM-05-2018-0061
Ahmad, R.Ahmad, R., Ahmad, S.Ahmad, S., Islam, T.Islam, T., and & Kaleem, A.Kaleem, A. (2020). The nexus of corporate social responsibility (CSR), affective commitment and organizational citizenship behavior in academia: A model of trust. Employee Relations, 42(1), 232-–247. https://doi.org/10.1108/ER-04-2018-0105
Akgunduz, Y., and & Bardakoglu, O. (2017). The impacts of perceived organizational prestige and organization identification on turnover intention: The mediating effect of psychological empowerment. Current Issues in Tourism, 20(14), 1510-–1526. https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2015.1034094.
Avey, J.B., Palanski, M.E. and Walumbwa, F.O. (2011). When leadership goes unnoticed: The moderating role of follower self-esteem on the relationship between ethical leadership and follower behavior. Journal of business ethics, 98(4), 573-582.
Babalola, M. T., Stouten, J., Euwema, M. C., & Ovadje, F. (2018). The relation between ethical leadership and workplace conflicts: The mediating role of employee resolution efficacy. Journal of Management, 44(5), 2037-–2063. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0149206316638163.
Baker, T. L., Hunt, T. G., & Andrews, M. C. (2006). Promoting ethical behavior and organizational citizenship behaviors: The influence of corporate ethical values. Journal of Business Research, 59(7), 849–857. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2006.02.004
Bandura, A. (1986). The explanatory and predictive scope of self-efficacy theory. Journal of sSocial and cClinical pPsychology, 4(3), 359-–373. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.1986.4.3.359.
Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: cConceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51(6), 1173–1182. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.51. 6.1173.
Bouckenooghe, D., Zafar, A., and & Raja, U. (2015). How Ethical Leadership Shapes Employees` Job Performance: The Mediating Roles of Goal Congruence and Psychological Capital. Journal of Business Ethics, 129(2), 251–264. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-014-2162-3.
Brown, M. E., and & Treviño, L. K. (2006). Ethical leadership: A review and future directions. Leadership Quarterly, 17(6), 595–616. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2006.10.004
Brown, M. E., Treviño, L. K., and & Harrison, D. A. (2005). Ethical leadership: A social learning perspective for construct development and testing. Organizational bBehavior and hHuman dDecision pProcesses, 97(2), 117-–134. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2005.03.002.
Byrne, B. M. (2010). Structural equation modeling with AMOS: bBasic concepts, applications, and programming (mMultivariate aApplications sSeries). New York: Taylor & Francis Group, 396, 7384.
Cherns, A. (1987). Principles of sociotechnical design revisited. Human Relations, 40 (3), 153-–161. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F001872678704000303.
Chirico, F., Nucera, G., & Magnavita, N. (2020). COVID-19: Protecting Hhealthcare Workers is a Priority. Infection Control & Hospital Epidemiology, 41(9), 1117-–1117. doi:10.1017/ice.2020.148
Choi, J. N. (2007). Change‐oriented organizational citizenship behavior: eEffects of work environment characteristics and intervening psychological processes. Journal of Organizational Behavior: The International Journal of Industrial, Occupational and Organizational Psychology and Behavior, 28(4), 467-–484. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.433
Conger, J. A., & Kanungo, R. N. (1988). The empowerment process: Integrating theory and practice. Academy of mManagement rReview, 13(3), 471-–482. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.1988.4306983.
De Hoogh, A. H. B., and Den Hartog, D. N. (2008). Ethical and despotic leadership, relationships with leaders` social responsi- bility, top management team effectiveness and subordinates’ optimism: A multi-method study. The Leadership Quarterly, 19(3), 297–311. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2008.03.002.
Den Hartog, D. N., and & Belschak, F. D. (2012). When does transformational leadership enhance employee proactive behavior? The role of autonomy and role breadth self-efficacy. Journal of Applied Psychology, 97 (1), 194–202. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/a0024903.
Dust, S. B., Resick, C. J., & Mawritz, M. B. (2014). Transformational leadership, psychological empowerment, and the moderating role of mechanistic–organic contexts. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 35(3), 413-433. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.1904.
Dust, S. B., Resick, C. J., Margolis, J. A., Mawritz, M. B., and & Greenbaum, R. L. (2018). Ethical leadership and employee success: Examining the roles of psychological empowerment and emotional exhaustion. Leadership Quarterly, 29(5), 570–583. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2018.02.002.
Eisenberger, R., Karagonlar, G., Stinglhamber, F., Neves, P., Becker, T. E., Gonzalez-Morales, M. G., and & Steiger-Mueller, M. (2010). Leader–member exchange and effective organizational commitment: The contribution of supervisor’s organizational embodiment. Journal of Applied Psychology, 95(6), 1085-–1103. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/a0020858.
Fasbender, U., Van der Heijden, B. I., and & Grimshaw, S. (2019). Job satisfaction, job stress and nurses’ turnover intentions: The moderating roles of on‐the‐job and off‐the‐job embeddedness. Journal of Advanced Advanced nNursing, 75(2), 327-–337. https://doi.org/10.1111/jan.13842.
Garg, S., and & Dhar, R. L. (2016). Extra-role customer service: The roles of Leader–Member Exchange (LMX), Affective Commitment, and psychological empowerment. International Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Administration, 17(4), 373-–396. https://doi.org/10.1080/15256480.2016.1226151.
Guillén, M., Ferrero, I., & Hoffman, W.M. (2015) The Neglected Ethical and Spiritual Motivations in the Workplace. Journal of Business Ethics, 128, 803–816. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-013-1985-7.
Gulland, A. (2013). Shortage of health workers is set to double, says WHO. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.f6804.
Hu, Y., Zhu, L., Zhou, M., Li, J., Maguire, P., Sun, H., & Wang, D. (2018). Exploring the influence of ethical leadership on voice behavior: hHow leader-member exchange, psychological safety and psychological empowerment influence employees’ willingness to speak out. Frontiers in pPsychology, 9, 1718. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01718.
Huang, L., Lin, G., Tang, L., Yu, L., & Zhou, Z. (2020). Special attention to nurses’ protection during the COVID-19 epidemic. Critical Care, 24 (1). 1–3. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13054-020-2841-7.
Irshad, M., Khattak, S. A., Hassan, M. M., Majeed, M., & Bashir, S. (2020). How perceived threat of CovidCOVID‐19 causes turnover intention among Pakistani nurses: A moderation and mediation analysis. International jJournal of mMental hHealth nNursing, 30(1). 2020 Aug 10 https://doi.org/10.1111/inm.12775.
Islam, T., and & Irfan, K. U. (2020). Can empowered employees go the extra mile?. Journal of Public Affairs, e2394. https://doi.org/10.1002/pa.2394.
Islam, T. (2019). Motivation to transfer training in learning organizations. Journal of Management Development, 38(4), 273-–287. https://doi.org/10.1108/JMD-03-2018-0098
Islam, T., & Tariq, J. (2018). Learning organizational environment and extra-role behaviors: The mediating role of employee engagement. Journal of Management Development, 37(3), 258-–270. https://doi.org/10.1108/JMD-01-2017-0039
Islam, T., Ahmad, U. N. B. U., Ali, G., Ahmed, I., & Bowra, Z. A. (2013). Turnover intentions: The influence of perceived organizational support and organizational commitment. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 103, 1238-–1242. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.10.452.
Islam, T., Ahmed, I., and & Ali, G. (2019). Effects of ethical leadership on bullying and voice behavior among nurses: Mediating role of organizational identification, poor working condition and workload. Leadership in Health Services, 32 (1), 2-–17., https://doi.org/10.1108/LHS-02-2017-0006
Islam, T., Ahmed, I., Ali, M., Ahmer, Z., & Usman, B. (2020a). Understanding despotic leadership through the lens of Islamic work ethics. Journal of Public Affairs, e2521. https://doi.org/10.1002/pa.2521.
Islam, T., Khan, M. M., Ahmed, I., & Mahmood, K. (2020b). Promoting in-role and extra-role green behavior through ethical leadership: mMediating role of green HRM and moderating role of individual green values. International Journal of Manpower, (In Press) 42(6), 1112–1123. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJM-01-2020-0036
Islam, T., Ahmad, S., Kaleem, A., and & Mahmood, K. (2020c). Abusive supervision and knowledge sharing: mModerating roles of Islamic work ethic and learning goal orientation. Management Decision, In press 59(2), 205–222. https://doi.org/10.1108/MD-08-2019-1069
Islam, T.Islam, T., Khan, M.M.Khan, M. M., and & Bukhari, F.H.Bukhari, F. H. (2016). The role of organizational learning culture and psychological empowerment in reducing turnover intention and enhancing citizenship behavior. The Learning OrganizationThe Learning Organization, 23(2/3), 156-–169. https://doi.org/10.1108/TLO-10-2015-0057
Javed, B., Khan, A. A., Bashir, S., and & Arjoon, S. (2017). Impact of ethical leadership on creativity: tThe role of psychological empowerment. Current Issues in Tourism, 20(8), 839–851. https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2016.1188894.
Kalshoven, K., Den Hartog, D. N., and & De Hoogh, A. H. (2011). Ethical leadership at work questionnaire (ELW): Development and validation of a multidimensional measure. The lLeadership qQuarterly, 22(1), 51-–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2010.12.007.
Lan, X. M., & Chong, W. Y. (2015). The mediating role of psychological empowerment between transformational leadership and employee work attitudes. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 172(27), 184-–191. doi: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.01.353.
Lotfi, Z., Atashzadeh-Shoorideh, F., Mohtashami, J., and Nasiri, M. (2018). Relationship between ethical leadership and organizational commitment of nurses with perception of patient safety culture. Journal of Nursing Management, 26(6), 726–734., DOIdoi: 10.1111/jonm.12607.
Lucchini, A., Giani, M., Elli, S., Villa, S., Rona, R., & Foti, G. (2020). Nursing Activities Score is increased in COVID-19 patients. Intensive & Critical Care Nursing , 59 ,102876., https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.iccn.2020.102876.
Mayer, D. M., Kuenzi, M., Greenbaum, R., Bardes, M., and & Salvador, R. (2009). How does ethical leadership flow? Test of a trickle- down model. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 103, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2008.04.002.
Ministry of National Health Services Regulations & Coordination. Govt of Pakistan. Covid-19 situation. https://covid.gov.pk/
Mo, S. and Shi, J. (2017). Linking Ethical Leadership to Employees’ Organizational Citizenship Behavior: Testing the Multilevel Mediation Role of Organizational Concern. Journal of Business Ethics, 141(1), 151–162. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-015-2734-x
Mokhtar, N., Fadzil, M., and & Khairi, M. (2018). Proceedings of the Regional Conference on Science, Technology and Social Sciences (RCSTSS 2016). https://doi.org/10.10078/978-981-13-0203-9.
Nunnally, J. C. (1978). Psychometric theory (2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Ones, D. S., Viswesvaran, C., and & Dilchert, S. (2017). Cognitive ability in personnel selection decisions., in In A. Evers, A.,O. F. Voskuijl, O.F. and& N. Anderson, N. (Eds.), The Blackwell Handbook of Personnel sSelection (pp. 143–173)., Wiley Blackwell, Oxford UK, pp. 143-173. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781405164221.ch7.
Organ, D. W. (1988). Organizational citizenship behavior: The good soldier syndrome. Lexington Books/DC Heath and Com.
Pasricha, P., Singh, B., and & Verma, P. (2018). Ethical lLeadership, Organic Organizational Cultures and Corporate Social Responsibility: An Empirical Study in Social Enterprises. Journal of Business Ethics, 151(4), 941–958. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-017-3568-5
Peng, J. C., and & Lin, J. (2017). Mediators of ethical leadership and group performance outcomes. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 32(7), 484-–496. https://doi.org/10.1108/JMP-10-2015-0370.
Piccolo, R. F., Greenbaum, R., Hartog, D. N. D., & Folger, R. (2010). The relationship between ethical leadership and core job characteristics. Journal of oOrganizational bBehavior, 31(2‐3), 259-–278. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.627.
Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., and & Podsakoff, N. P. (2012). Sources of method bias in social science research and recommendations on how to control it. Annual rReview of pPsychology, 63, 539-–569. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-120710-100452.
Pousa, C., Liu, Y., & Aman, A. (2020). The effect of managerial coaching on salesperson’s relationship behaviors: New evidence from frontline bank employees in China. International Journal of Bank Marketing, 38(6), 1259–1277. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJBM-12-2019-0437
Pradhan, R. K., Panda, M., & Jena, L. K. (2017). Transformational leadership and psychological empowerment. Journal of Enterprise Information Management, 30(1), 82–95. https://doi.org/10.1108/JEIM-01-2016-0026.
Qing, M., Asif, M., Hussain, A., and & Jameel, A. (2019). Exploring the impact of ethical leadership on job satisfaction and organizational commitment in public sector organizations: The mediating role of psychological empowerment. Review of Managerial Science, 14, 1-28405–1432. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11846-019-00340-9.
Rai, A., Ghosh, P., Chauhan, R., and & Singh, R. (2018). Improving in-role and extra-role performances with rewards and recognition. Management Research Review,. 41(8), 902-–919. https://doi.org/10.1108/MRR-12-2016-0280.
Ranney, M. L., Griffeth, V., & Jha, A. K. (2020). Critical Supply Shortages—The Need for Ventilators and Personal Protective Equipment during the CovidCOVID-19 Pandemic. New England Journal of Medicine, 382 (18), e4. DOIdoi: 10.1056/NEJMp2006141
Raub, S., & Robert, C. (2010). Differential effects of empowering leadership on in-role and extra-role employee behaviors: Exploring the role of psychological empowerment and power values. Human rRelations, 63(11), 1743-–1770. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0018726710365092.
Ruane, J. M. (2005). Essentials of Research Methods: A guide to social sciences research. London: Blackwell Publishing.
Sasso, L., Bagnasco, A., Catania, G., Zanini, M., Aleo, G., Watson, R., & RN4CAST@ IT Working Group. (2019). Push and pull factors of nurses’ intention to leave. Journal of nursing management, 27(5), 946-954. https://doi.org/10.1111/jonm.12745
Seibert, S. E., Wang, G., and & Courtright, S. H. (2011). Antecedents and consequences of psychological and team empowerment in organizations: A meta-analytic review. Journal of applied psychology, 96(5), 981-–1003. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/a0022676.
Sekeran, U. (2003). Research methods for business. River Street.
Shahrour, G., & Dardas, L. A. (2020). Acute stress disorder, coping self‐efficacy and subsequent psychological distress among nurses amid COVID‐19. Journal of nNursing mManagement, 28(7), 1686-–1695. https://doi.org/10.1111/jonm.13124.
Shareef, R. A., and & Atan, T. (2019). The influence of ethical leadership on academic employees’ organizational citizenship behavior and turnover intention: Mediating role of intrinsic motivation. Management Decision, 57(3), 583-–605. https://doi.org/10.1108/MD-08-2017-0721.
Spreitzer, G. M. (1996). Social structural characteristics of psychological empowerment. Academy of mManagement jJournal, 39(2), 483-–504. https://doi.org/10.5465/256789.
Spreitzer, G. M. (2008). Taking stock: A review of more than twenty years of research on empowerment at work. Handbook of oOrganizational bBehavior, 1, 54-–72.
Spreitzer, G. M. (1995). Psychological empowerment in the workplace: Dimensions, measurement, and validation. Academy of mManagement Journal, 38(5), 1442-–1465. https://doi.org/10.5465/256865.
Stander, M. W., and & Rothmann, S. (2010). Psychological empowerment, job insecurity and employee engagement. SA Journal of Industrial Psychology, 36(1), 1-–8.
Suifan, T. S., Diab, H., Alhyari, S., and & Sweis, R. J. (2020). Does ethical leadership reduce turnover intention? The mediating effects of psychological empowerment and organizational identification. Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 30(4), 410-–428. https://doi.org/10.1080/10911359.2019.1690611.
Thomas, K. W., & Velthouse, B. A. (1990). Cognitive elements of empowerment: An “interpretive” model of intrinsic task motivation. Academy of mManagement rReview, 15(4), 666-–681. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.1990.4310926
Tripathi, D., Priyadarshi, P., Kumar, P., & Kumar, S. (2020). Does servant leadership affect work role performance via knowledge sharing and psychological empowerment?. VINE Journal of Information and Knowledge Management Systems. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1108/VJIKMS-10-2019-0159.
Tu, Y., and & Lu, X. (2016). Do ethical leaders give followers the confidence to go the extra mile? The moderating role of intrinsic motivation. Journal of Business Ethics, 135(1), 129-–144. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-014-2463-6.
Turnipseed, D.L. and VandeWaa, E.A. (2020). The little engine that could: the impact of psychological empowerment on organizational citizenship behavior. International Journal of Organization Theory & Behavior, 23 (4), 281-296. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJOTB-06-2019-0077
Walumbwa, F. O., Mayer, D. M., Wang, P., Wang, H., Workman, K., and & Christensen, A. L. (2011). Linking ethical leadership to employee performance: The roles of leader–member exchange, self-efficacy, and organizational identification. Organizational bBehavior and hHuman dDecision pProcesses, 115(2), 204-–213. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2010.11.002.
Williams, L. J., and & Anderson, S. E. (1991). Job satisfaction and organizational commitment as predictors of organizational citizenship and in-role behaviors. Journal of Management, 17(3), 601–617. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F014920639101700305.
World Health Organization, World Health Report. (2006). The World Health Report 2006: wWorking together for health. http://www.who.int/whr/2006/whr06_en.pdf?ua=1.
World Health Organization. (2020a, March 18). Mental health and psychosocial considerations during the COVID-19 outbreak, 18 March 2020 (No. WHO/2019-nCoV/ MentalHealth/2020.1). World Health Organization.
World Health Organization. (2020b). WHO Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19) DashboardWHO Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) dashboard. https://covid19.who.int/
World Health Organization. Global Health Observatory data repository. (2018). Global Health Workforce Statistics:. Nursing and midwifery personnel. Retrieved from https://apps.who.int/gho/data/node.main. HWFGRP_0040?lang=en.
Yang, Q., and & Wei, H. (2018). The impact of ethical leadership on organizational citizenship behavior: The moderating role of workplace ostracism. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 39(1), 100-–113. https://doi.org/10.1108/LODJ-12-2016-0313.
Zhu, W., May, D. R., and & Avolio, B. J. (2004). The impact of ethical leadership behavior and employee outcomes: The roles of psychological empowerment and authenticity. Journal of Leadership and Organizational Studies, 11(1), 16–26. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F107179190401100104.