Over the past several years, Thai public opinion and stockholder sentiment have been rocked by corporate executive violations of insider trading laws. These insider trading scandals have coincided with other global high-profile cases of a similar nature. As these executives serve as public fiduciaries to their stockholders, the ethical nature of their performance is of critical importance. Therefore, an investigation was undertaken on the variables of personal characteristics, organizational culture, job characteristics, and organizational engagement and their effects on a Stock Exchange of Thailand (SET) executives’ ethical leadership performance. The research instrument used was a 56-item questionnaire which contained a five-level, Likert type agreement scale. Selection of the sample group’s 236 executive members was accomplished by purposive sampling, followed by a process of being randomly categorized based on industry group through quota sampling. From the seven hypotheses developed from the theory and literature, six were supported. From the supported hypotheses, it was determined that an executive’s characteristics, job characteristics, and organization engagement had direct positive impacts on ethical leadership performance. The single unsupported hypotheses were speculated to have been rejected due to a Thai cultural trait in which authority (Pu Yai) is never questioned or challenged. It was also noted from the research the importance of families in a SET-listed stock’s performance. The study concluded that an executive’s ethical performance could either make or break an organization. Indeed, the study’s results highlighted the gravity of ethical leadership and the importance of which organizations should invest in instilling organizational engagement into their employees. Additionally, it was established that organizational culture has a tremendous influence on ethical leadership performance. Hence, aggressive culture is an ideal option for embedding ethical practices in the organization. The conceptual model of this research substantiated methods of implementing ethical practices in an organization, particularly the fact that personal characteristics, job characteristics, and organizational engagement should be taken into consideration.
Keywords: job characteristics, organizational culture, organizational engagement, path analysis, personal characteristicsAdznan, S., & Nelson, S. P. (2015). Financial instruments disclosure practices: Evidence from Malaysian listed firms. Asian Journal of Accounting and Governance, 6, 37 – 48. doi: 10.17576/ajag-2015-6-04
Ahlowalia, S., Tiwary, D., & Jha, A. (2014). Employee engagement: A structured theoretical review. The International Journal of Business & Management, 2(6), 309-–317. Retrieved from https://tinyurl.com/y882qnpr
Ahmed, M., & Shafiq, S. (2014). The impact of organizational culture on organizational performance: A case study of the telecom sector. Global Journal of Management and Business Research: Administration and Management, 14(3), 20-–30. Retrieved from https://tinyurl.com/yc8p2fk5
Algahtani, A. (2014). Are Leadership and Management Different? A Review. Journal of Management Policies and Practices, 2(3), 71 – 82. doi: 10.15640/jmpp.v2n3a4
Bakker, A. B., & Demerouti, E. (2007). The Job Demands-Resources Model: State of the art. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 22(3), 309-–328. doi: 10.1108/02683940710733115
Barney, J. B. (1986). Organizational culture: Can it be a source of sustainable competitive advantage? Academy of Management Review, 11, 656–665. doi: 10.5465/AMR.1986.4306261
Barney, J. B. (1991). Firm resources and sustained competitive advantage. Journal of Management, 17(1), 91–120. Retrieved from https://tinyurl.com/yaboomsx
Bartlett, M. S. (1950). Tests of significance in factor analysis. British Journal of Psychology, 3(2), 77-–85. doi: 10.1111/j.2044-8317.1952.tb00117.x
Bass, B. M. (2008). The Bass handbook of leadership: Theory, research, & managerial applications (4th ed.). New York, NY: Free Press.
Black, B. S. (2001a). The legal and institutional preconditions for strong securities markets. UCLA Law Review, 48, 781-–858. doi: 10.2139/ssrn.182169
Black, B. S. (2001b, April 4). The principal fiduciary duties of boards of directors. Paper presented at the Third Asian Roundtable on Corporate Governance, Singapore. Retrieved from https://tinyurl.com/yco7adn2
Booranakit, N., Tungkunanan, P., & Suntrayuth, D. (2017). A Thai Provincial Administrative Organizations’ (PAO) administrative and educational systems good governance analysis. Asian International Journal of Social Sciences, 17(1), 36 – 55. doi: 10.29139/aijss.20170102
Brown, M. E., & Mitchell, M. S. (2010). Ethical and unethical leadership: Exploring new avenues for future research. Business Ethics Quarterly, 20(4), 583-–616. doi: 10.5840/beq201020439
Brown, M. E., & Trevino, L. K. (2006). Ethical leadership: A review and future directions. The Leadership Quarterly, 17, 595–616. doi: 10.1016/j.leaqua.2006.10.004
Bryman, A. (1992). Charisma and Leadership in Organizations. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.
Casey, R., & Robbins, J. (2009). A comparison of the elements of motivation in the hospital industry versus the retail and manufacturing sectors. Journal of Diversity Management, 4(3), 13-–20. doi: 10.19030/jdm.v4i3.4961
Chatman, J. A., & O`Reilly, C. A. (2016). Paradigm lost: Reinvigorating the study of organizational culture. Research in Organizational Behavior, 36, 199-–224. doi: 10.1016/j.riob.2016.11.004
Chen, C.-J., Shih, H.-A., & Yeh, Y.-C. (2011). Individual initiative, skill variety, and creativity: tThe moderating role of knowledge specificity and creative resources. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 22(17), 3447 – 3461. doi: 10.1080/09585192.2011.599940
Chowdhury, R. G. (2014). A study on the impact of leadership styles on employee motivation and commitment: An empirical study of selected organizations in the corporate sector. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Mumbai, India: PATIL University, Mumbai, India. Retrieved from https://tinyurl.com/y92st379
Chudasri, D. (2018, March 14). SET chief sees a B22tn market cap by 2021. Bangkok Post. Retrieved from https://tinyurl.com/yalopcrx
Cleave, S. (1993). A test of the job characteristics model with administrative positions in physical education and sport. Journal of Sport Management, 7(3), 228 – 242. Retrieved from https://tinyurl.com/y9ulnzpp
Cooke, R. A., & Lafferty, J. C. (1995). Organizational culture inventory. Plymouth, MI: Human
Synergistics International.Cooke, R. A., & Szumal, J. L. (2013). Using the organizational culture inventory to understand the operating cultures of organizations. In N. M. Ashkanasy, C. Wilderom, & M. Peterson (Eds.), Handbook of organizational culture & climate (pp. 147–162). Place of publication: Human Synergistics InternationalSage Publication. Retrieved from https://tinyurl.com/ycmd2gk2
Cronbach, L. J. (1951). Coefficient alpha and the international structure of tests. Psychometric. 16(3), 297–334.
Cui, X., & Hu, J. (2012). A literature review on organizational culture and corporate performance. International Journal of Business Administration, 3(2), 29-–37. https://doi.org/10.5430/ijba.v3n2p28
Demerouti, E., Bakker, A. B., Nachreiner, F., & Schaufeli, W. B. (2001). The job Demands-Resources model of burnout. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86(3), 499-–512. Retrieved from https://tinyurl.com/y9wg55kw
Denning, S. (2011, July 23). How do you change an organizational culture? Forbes. Retrieved from https://tinyurl.com/y8ecgdk4
Deshpande, R., & Webster, F. E. (1989). Organizational culture and marketing: Defining the research agenda. The Journal of Marketing, 53(1), 3-–15. doi: 10.2307/1251521
Downe, J., Cowell, R., & Morgan, K. (2016). What determines ethical behavior in public organizations: Is it rules or leadership? Public Administration Review, 76(6), 898 – 909. doi: 10.1111/puar.12562
Engelbrecht, A. S., Heine, G., & Mahembe, B. (2014). The influence of ethical leadership on trust and work engagement: aAn exploratory study. SA Journal of Industrial Psychology, 40(1), 1 – 9. doi: 10.4102/sajip.v40i1.1210
Etikan, I., Musa, S. A., & Alkassim, R. S. (2016). Comparison of convenience sampling and purposive sampling, American Journal of Theoretical and Applied Statistics, 5(1), 1-–4. doi: 10.11648/j.ajtas.20160501.11
Ferris, R. (2018, October 17). Judge approves Elon Musk`s settlement with SEC. CNBC. Retrieved from https://tinyurl.com/ycbh4hq4
ForbesInvestopedia. (2013, February 5). 5 most publicized ethics violations by CEOs. Forbes. Retrieved from https://tinyurl.com/ybjx3994
Fox, E., Crigger, B.-J., Bottrell, M., & Bauck, P. (2017). Ethical leadership fostering an ethical environment & culture. Washington, D.C.: National Center for Ethics in Health Care: Washington, D.C. Retrieved from https://tinyurl.com/y8vnv4mw
Gomez-Mejia, L. R., Balkin, D. B., & Cardy, R. L. (2007). Managing human resources. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education International.
Gordon, G. G. (1985). The relationship of corporate culture to industry sector and corporate performance. In R. H. Kilmann, M. J. Saxton, R. Serpa, & Associates (Eds.),. Gaining control of the corporate culture (pp. 103–125), San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Green, D. E., & Walkey, F. H. (1988). A confirmation of the three-factor structure of the Maslach Burnout Inventory. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 48(3), 579 -– 585. doi: 10.1177/0013164488483002
Greenberg, M. D. (2012). Corporate culture and ethical leadership under the federal sentencing Guidelines. Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation. Retrieved from https://tinyurl.com/ybolmsb2
Griffin, M. A., Neal, A., & Parker, S. K. (2007). A new model of work role performance: Positive behavior in uncertain interdependent contexts. Academy of Management Journal, 50(2), 327–347. doi: 10.5465/amj.2007.24634438
Habe, K., & Tement, S. (2016). Flow among higher education teachers: A job demands-resources perspective. Horizons of Psychology, 25, 29–37. Retrieved from https://tinyurl.com/y7lfs3qj
Hackman, J. R., & Oldham, G. (1980). Work redesign. Reading, MA: Addison Wesley.
Harrigan, K. R. (2014). Comparing corporate governance practices and exit decisions between US and Japanese firms. Journal of Management & Governance, 18(4), 975 – 988. doi: 10.1007/s10997-012-9249-y
Hassan, S., Wright, B. E., & Yukl, G. (2014). Does ethical leadership matter in government?
Effects on organizational commitment, absenteeism, and willingness to report ethical problems. Public Administration Review, 74(3), 333–43. doi: 10.1111/puar.12216
Hersey, P., & Blanchard, K. H. (1996). Great ideas revisited: Revisiting the life-cycle theory of leadership. Training & Development Journal, 50(1), 42–xx.
Hizam-Hanafiah, M., Yousaf, S. U., & Usman, B. (2017). The influence of psychological capital on the growth intentions of entrepreneurs: A study on Malaysian SME entrepreneurs.
Business and Economic Horizons, 13(5), 556 – 569. doi: 10.15208/beh.2017.38
Holmes, H., & Tangtongtav, S. (1995). Working with the Thais. Bangkok, Thailand: White Lotus Co. Ltd.
Hult, G. T. M., Ketchen, D. J., & Nichols, E. L. (2002). An examination of cultural competitiveness and order fulfillment cycle time with supply chains. Academy of Management Journal, 45(3), 557–586. doi: 10.2307/3069382
Hussein, B., Khachfe, H., Haj-Ali, A., & Aridi, M. (2016). Measuring the motivating potential score of academic staff at the Lebanese International University. Athens Journal of Mediterranean Studies, 2(2), 161-–174. Retrieved from https://tinyurl.com/y9xzbnn3
Inagaki, K. (2017, January 4). Toshiba was rattled by reports of fresh scandal evidence. Financial Times. Retrieved from https://tinyurl.com/y73rslyx
Insync Surveys. (2013). The 7 organizational habits that drive high performance. Retrieved from https://tinyurl.com/yapew66q
Jamieson, D. M., Barnett, R. C., & Buono, A. F. (eEds.). (2016). Consultation for organizational
change revisited. Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing.
Jantraprap, V. (2016, March 16). Thailand fines executives for insider trading. Reuters. Retrieved from https://tinyurl.com/yazwzgtw
Jindal, P., & Shaikh, M. (2016). Talent management through employee engagement in hospitality companies. International Journal of Multidisciplinary and Current Research, 4, 1216 1222. Retrieved from https://tinyurl.com/y8ljf6nr
Jordan, J., Brown, M. E., Treviño, L. K., & Finkelstein, S. (2011). Someone to look up to. Journal of Management, 39(3), 660 – 683. doi: 10.1177/0149206311398136
Johari, J., Yean, T. F., Yahya, K. K., & Adnan, Z. (2015). Elevating job performance through job characteristics and work involvement. International Academic Research Journal of Social Science, 1(2), 69-–82. Retrieved from https://tinyurl.com/y9h9hg2h
Kaarst-Brown, M. L., Nicholson, S., Gisela, M. V. D., & Santon, J. M. (2004). Organizational cultures of libraries as strategic resources. Library Trends, 53(1), 33-–53. Retrieved from https://tinyurl.com/y86fct4d
Kaiser, H. F. (1970). A second-generation little jiffy. Psychometrika, 35(4), 401-–415. doi: 10.1007/bf02291817
Karmali, N. (2016, June 1). Thailand`s SEC causes tremors as it cracks down on insider trading. Forbes. Retrieved from https://tinyurl.com/y6ukvkqm
Kangure, F. M., Guyo, W., & Odhiambo, R. (2014). Relationship between job characteristics and employee engagement among state corporations in Kenya. International Journal of Innovative Research and Studies, 3(5), 326 – 350. Retrieved from https://tinyurl.com/ybnf7prb
Karavelioğlu, A. M. (2014). Analysis of Lleadership styles in banking sectors in North Cyprus: A model for the banking sector in a small island economy. International Journal of Business Management and Administration, 3(1), pp. 9 – 21. doi:10.5296/ijrd.v1i1.6513
Kavaliauskienė, Z. (2017). Employee`s organizational commitment measurement based on metastudy. Professional Studies: Theory and Practice, 3(18), 19-–27. Retrieved from https://tinyurl.com/yafn4eba
Kazimoto, P. (2016). Employee engagement and organizational performance of retails enterprises. American Journal of Industrial and Business Management, 6, 516-–525. doi: 10.4236/ajibm.2016.64047
Kellett, J. B., Humphey, R. H., & Sleeth, R. G. (2002). Empathy and complex task performance: Two routes to leadership. The Leadership Quarterly, 13(5), 523-–544. doi: 10.1016/S1048-9843(02)00142-X
Khine, M. S. (2013). Application of structural equation modeling in educational research and practice. Boston, MA: Sense Publishers. Retrieved from https://tinyurl.com/yb8ymp2z
Khuong, M. N., & Nhu, N. V. Q. (2015). The effects of ethical leadership and organizational culture towards employees` sociability and commitment a study of tourism sector in Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam. Journal of Advanced Management Science, 3(4),. 329 – 336. doi: 10.12720/joams.3.4.329-336
Komin, S. (1990). Psychology of the Thai people: Values and behavioral patterns. Bangkok, Thailand: National Institute of Development Administration.
Kyozuka, T. (2016, January 13). Market cap will double by 2020, bourse`s chief says. Nikkei Asia Review. Retrieved from https://tinyurl.com/yaarv9q6
Lang, S. (2013). A study of leadership style and learning organization in Canadia Bank Plc, Phnom Penh, Cambodia. In Public administration in the time of regional change (ICPM 2013) (pp. 111–115). Retrieved from https://tinyurl.com/y7fo7w9p
Ledimo, O. (2014). The role of transformational leadership and organizational culture in service delivery within a public service organization. Journal of Governance and Regulation, 3(3), 44-–51. Retrieved from https://tinyurl.com/ychvvqoa
Llorens, S., Bakker, A. B., Schaufeli, W., & Salanova, M. (2006). Testing the robustness of the job demands-resources model. International Journal of Stress Management, 13(3), 378-–391. doi: 10.1037/1072-5245.14.2.224
Fry, L. W., & Slocum, J. W. (2008). Maximizing the triple bottom line through spiritual leadership. Organizational Dynamics, 37(1), 86-–96. doi: 10.1016/j.orgdyn.2007.11.004
Lunenburg, F. C. (2011). Motivating by enriching jobs to make them more interesting and challenging. International Journal of Management, Business, and Administration, 5(1), 1
Lunenburg, 11. Retrieved from https://tinyurl.com/y8fl59r6
Madi, M., Abu-Jarad, I., & Alqahtani, A. H. M. (2012). Employees` perception and organizational commitment: A study on the banking sector in Gaza, Palestine. International Journal of Business and Social Science, 3(16), 299-–312. Retrieved from https://tinyurl.com/yarojxpe
Madu, B. C. (2011). Organization culture as a driver of competitive advantage. Journal of Academic and Business Ethics, 5(1), 1-–9. Retrieved from https://tinyurl.com/y7gn78qw
Markarian, G., Parbonetti, A., & Previts, G. J. (2007). The convergence of disclosure and governance practices in the world’s largest firms. Corporate Governance: An International Review, 15(2), 294 -– 310. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8683.2007.00561.x
Martin, R. (2011). The CEO`s ethical dilemma in the era of earnings management. Strategy & Leadership, 39(6), 43-–47. doi: 10.1108/10878571111176628
Mayer, D. M., Kuenzi, M., & Greenbaum, R. L. (2011). Examining the link between ethical leadership and employee misconduct: The mediating role of ethical climate. Journal of Business Ethics, 95(Supplement 1), 7–16. doi: 10.1007/s10551-011-0794-0
McCleskey, J. A., (2014). Situational, transformational, and transactional leadership and leadership development. Journal of Business Studies Quarterly, 5(4), 117 -– 130. Retrieved from https://tinyurl.com/ydbjospv
Michalisin, M. D., Smith, R. D., & Kline, D. M. (1997). In search of strategic assets. International
Journal of Organizational Analysis, 5(4), 360–387. doi: 10.1108/eb028874
Mihelic, K. K., Lipicnik, B., & Tekavcic, M. (2010). Ethical leadership. International Journal of
Management & Information Systems, 14(5), 31-– 42. doi: 10.19030/ijmis.v14i5.11
Mumford, M. D., Marks, M. A., Connelly, M. S., Zaccaro, S. J., & Reiter-Palmon, R. (2000a). Development of leadership skills: Experience and timing. Leadership Quarterly, 11, 87 – 144. doi: 10.1016/S1048-9843(99)00044-2
Mumford, M. D., Zaccaro, S. J., Johnson, J. F., Diana, M., Gilbert, J. A., & Threlfall, K. V. (2000b). Pattern of leader characteristics: Implications for performance and development. Leadership Quarterly, 11(1), 115 Mumford, M. D. 133. doi: 10.1016/S1048-9843(99)00045-4
Organization for Economic Co-operation and DevelopmentOECD. (2011). Convention on combating bribery of foreign public officials in international business transactions. Retrieved from https://tinyurl.com/gn3zgav
Organization for Economic Co-operation and DevelopmentOECD. (2017). Phase 3 bis report on implementing the OECD anti-bribery convention in Argentina. Retrieved from https://tinyurl.com/ycuklxze
Ongdee, S. (2016, September 17). SEC is given more legal power. The Nation. Retrieved from https://tinyurl.com/y8fzvqm3
Ouyang, Y., Cheng, C. H., & Hsieh, C. J. (2010). Does LMX enhance the job involvement of financial service personnel by the mediating roles? Problems and Perspectives in Management, 8(1), 174-–181. Retrieved from https://tinyurl.com/yd3u9da9
Owen, R. G., & Valesky, T. (2010). Organizational behavior in education: iInstructional leadership and school reform (10th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson.
Piccolo, R. F., Greenbaum, R., den Hartog, D. N., & Folger, R. (2010). The relationship between ethical and core job characteristics. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 31(2-–3), 259 –278. doi: 10.1002/job.627
Poohongthong, C., Surat, P., & Sutipan, P. (2014). A study on the relationships between ethical leadership, work-life balance, organizational socialization, and organizational citizenship behavior of teachers in Northern Thailand. International Journal of Behavioral Science, 9(2), 17 – 28. doi: 10.14456/ijbs.2014.2
Pumim, A., Srinuan, C., & Panjakajornsak, V. (2017). Mobile phone customer loyalty in Thailand: A pathanalysis case study. Asia-Pacific Social Science Review, 16(3), xxx–xxx. Retrieved from https://tinyurl.com/y7y9gxz4
Quinn, R. E. (1988). Beyond rational management: Mastering the paradoxes and competing demands of high performance. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Rai, A., Ghosh, P., Chauhan, R., & Mehta, N. K. (2017). Influence of job characteristics on engagement: Does support at work act as moderator? International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy, 37(1/2), 86 – 105. doi: 10.1108/ijssp-10-2015-0106
Rattrie, L. T. B., & Kittler, M. G. (2014). The Job Demands-Resources model and the international work context: A systematic review. Journal of Global Mobility, 2(3), 260-–279. doi: 10.1108/jgm-06-2014-0018
Ravasi, D., & Schultz, M. (2006). Responding to organizational identity threats: Exploring the role of organizational culture. Academy of Management Journal, 49(3), 433-–458. doi: 10.5465/AMJ.2006.21794663
Reh, F. J. (2017, March 31). Understanding the role and responsibilities of leadership. The Balance Careers. Retrieved from https://tinyurl.com/yb5y5lko
Rottman, C., Sacks, R., & Reeve, D. (2015). Engineering leadership: Grounding leadership theory in engineering’s professional identities. Leadership, 11(3), 351-–373. doi: 10.1177/1742715014543581
Royal Decree on Criteria and Procedures for Good Governance, B.E. 2546. (2003). (2003). Retrieved from https://tinyurl.com/y92paluq
Saeed, R., Shakeel, M., & Lodhi, R. N. (2013). Ethical behavior and employee job performance in the education sector of Pakistan. Middle-East Journal of Scientific Research, 18(4), 524-–529. Retrieved from https://tinyurl.com/y97wyvrc
Sandford, N. (2015, January 20). Corporate culture: The center of strong ethics and compliance.
The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved from https://tinyurl.com/yalgh8rk
Schaufeli, W. B., & Taris, T. W. (2014). A critical review of the job demands-resources model: Implications for improving work and health. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer Science.
Schein, E. H. (2004). Organizational culture and leadership. (3rd ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Sopchokchai, O. (2001). Good local governance and anti-corruption through people`s participation: A case of Thailand. The World Bank. Retrieved from https://tinyurl.com/yb5ahxlr
Srivastava, S. S. (2016). Social learning of employee engagement. (Unpublished Doctoral dissertation). Loyola University, Chicago, IL. Retrieved from https://tinyurl.com/ybz34qeb
Szumal, J. L. (2012). The reliability and validity of the Organizational Effectiveness Inventory (OEI). Arlington Heights, IL: Human Synergistics International. Retrieved from https://tinyurl.com/yanrgr2e
Tavakol, M., & Dennick, R. (2011). Making sense of Cronbach’s alpha. International Journal of Medical Education, 2, 53-–55. doi: 10.5116/ijme.4dfb.8dfd
Thanasankit, T., & Corbitt, B. (2002). Understanding Thai culture and its impact on requirements engineering process management during information systems development. Asian Academy of Management Journal, 7(1), 103 – 126. Retrieved from https://tinyurl.com/y75vq89t
Thao, L. T. T., & Hwang, C-S. J. (2015). Factors affecting employee performance-evidence from PetroVietnam Engineering Consultancy J.S.C. Retrieved from https://tinyurl.com/yb8vrwzs
The Stock Exchange of Thailand. (2017). Retrieved from https://tinyurl.com/y85twqzy
Tonge, A., Greer, L., & Lawton, A. (2003). The Enron story: You can fool some of the people some of the time. Business Ethics: A European Review, 12(1), 4–22. doi: 10.1111/1467-8608.00301
Trakulmututa, J., & Chaijareonwattana, B. (2013). Good governance in the human resource management at the level of local government: The empirical study of the southern part of Thailand. International Journal of Business and Social Science, 4(7), 46–53. Retrieved from https://tinyurl.com/hgw74al
Walumbwa, F. O., Mayer, D. M., Wang, P., Wang, H., Workman, K., & Christensen, A. L. (2011). Linking ethical leadership to employee performance: The roles of leader-member exchange, self-efficacy, and organizational identification. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 115(2), 204 – 213. doi: 10.1016/j.obhdp.2010.11.002
Wellins, R. S., Bernthal, P., & Phelps, M. (2015). Employee engagement: The key to realizing a competitive advantage. Development Dimensions International. Retrieved from https://tinyurl.com/y88bx2su
Wingerden, J. V., Bakker, A. B., & Derks, D. (2016). A test of a job demands-resources intervention. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 31(3), 686 -– 701. doi: 10.1108/jmp-03-2014-0086
Yates, L. A. (2014). Exploring the relationship of ethical leadership with job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and organizational citizenship behavior. The Journal of Values-Based Leadership, 7(1), 1-–15. Retrieved from https://tinyurl.com/y8bpfyah
Yaverbaum, G. J., & Culpan, O. (2011). Foundations for understanding the user environment: A study for motivation, task differences, and technology. Journal of Applied Business Research, 4(4), 97-–104. doi: 10.19030/jabr.v4i4.6399
Zawawi, A. A., & Nasurdin, A. M. (2017). The impact of task characteristics on the performance of nursing teams. International Journal of Nursing Sciences, 4(3), 285 – 290. doi: 10.1016/j.ijnss.2017.03.009
Zhu, W. (2008). The effect of leadership on follower moral identity: The mediating role of psychological empowerment. Leadership Review, 8(Spring), 62-–73. Retrieved from https://tinyurl.com/y7pefg82