Winning the War on Poverty: Tracking Living Standards in the Philippines Using a Class of Axiomatic Indices

Article Details

John Paolo R. Rivera, cynthia.cudia@dlsu.edu.ph, De La Salle University, Philippines

Journal: DLSU Business and Economics Review
Volume 30 Issue 2 (Published: 2021-01-01)

Abstract

Poverty has persistently badgered the Philippines and alleviating it has been the fundamental thrust of the government. However, this was hampered by the recent pandemic resulting in economic contraction plunging many Filipino households into poverty and widening inequality. Bootstrapping the economy is needed to fast-track recovery through resumption of innovative reforms vital to pursue a higher growth path that will accelerate poverty reduction. To do this, it is necessary to understand where the Philippines stands, using household data. Without updated measures and well-informed national and regional profiles on living standards, poverty reduction is bleak, as programs to facilitate it remain to be ineffective. We contribute to addressing these constraints by estimating metrics that will aid interregional comparisons, give directions to policy formulation, and assess whether the country is winning the war on poverty.

Keywords: inequality, living standards, poverty, welfare

DOI: https://www.dlsu.edu.ph/wp-content/uploads/2021/04/2Rivera-041121.pdf
  References:

Alba, M. M. (2007). Why has the Philippines remained a poor country? Some perspectives from Ggrowth Eeconomics. Retrieved from https://www.econstor.eu/obitstream/10419/46668/1/538098074.pdf.

Albert, J. R. G. (2019). On poverty lines and counting the poor. Rappler. Retrieved from https://www.rappler.com/thought-leaders/228230-analysis-poverty-lines-counting-poor-filipinos.

Albert, J. R. G., & Ramos, A. P. (2010). Trends in household vulnerability (Discussion Paper 2010-1). Philippine Institute for Development Studies. Retrieved from https://dirp4.pids.gov.ph/ris/dps/pidsdps1001.pdf.

Albert, J. R. G., & Vizmanos, J. F. V. (2018). Vulnerability to poverty in the Philippines: An examination of trends from 2003 to 2015 (Discussion Paper 2018-10). Philippine Institute for Development Studies. Retrieved from https://ideas.repec.org/p/ess/wpaper/id12898.html.

Albert, J. R. G., Elloso, L. V., & Ramos, A. P. (2007). Toward measuring household vulnerability to income poverty in the Philippines (Discussion Paper 2007-16). Philippine Institute for Development Studies. Retrieved from https://dirp3.pids.gov.ph/ris/dps/pidsdps0716.pdf.

Aliping, N. B., Pizarro, M. G., Reyes, P. O., & Rivera, J. P. R. (2016a). Understanding food inequality in the Philippines using Engel curves, Lorenz curves, and kernel distributions. In M. Tiongco (Ed.), Pathways out of poverty (pp. 26–65). DLSU Publishing House. Retrieved from https://www.dlsu.edu.ph/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/complete_final_for_printing_pathways_poverty_102516-min.pdf.

Aliping, N. B., Pizarro, M. G., & Rivera, J. P. R. (2016b). A repeated cross-section analysis of poverty mobility through education in the Philippines. In M. Tiongco (Ed.), Pathways out of poverty (pp. 113-–137). DLSU Publishing House. Retrieved from https://www.dlsu.edu.ph/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/complete_final_for_printing_pathways_poverty_102516-min.pdf.

Arcilla, R. G., Co, F. F., & Ocampo, S. R. (2011). Correlates of poverty: Evidence from the cCommunity-bBased mMonitoring sSystem (CBMS) data. DLSU Business & Economics Review, 20(2), 33–43. Retrieved from https://ejournals.ph/article.php?id=6427.

Atkinson, A. B. (1970). On the measurement of inequality. Journal of Economic Theory, 2(3), 244–263. https://doi.org/:10.1016/0022-0531(70)90039-6.

Azevedo, J. P. (2007). APOVERTY: Module to compute poverty measures. Retrieved from http://fmwww.bc.edu/RePEc/bocode/a.

Balisacan, A. M. (1992). Rural poverty in the Philippines: Incidence, determinants and policies. Asian Development Review, 10(1), 125-–163.

Balisacan, A. M. (1999). Reconstructing poverty profiles in the Philippines (UPSE Discussion Papers 1999-15). University of the Philippines School of Economics. Retrieved from https://ideas.repec.org/p/phs/dpaper/199915.html.

Balisacan, A. M(2001). Poverty in the Philippines: An update and reexamination. Philippine Review of Economics, 38(1), 15-–52. Retrieved from https://ideas.repec.org/a/phs/prejrn/v38y2001i1p15-52.html.

Balisacan, A. M., & Pernia, E. M. (2002, March). Probing beneath cross-national averages: Poverty, inequality, and growth in the Philippines (ERD Working Paper No. 7). Asian Development Bank. Retrieved from https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/28441/wp007.pdf.

Barro, R. J., & Lee, J. (2001). International data on educational attainment: Updates and implications. Oxford Economic Papers, 53(3), 541-–563. https://doi.org/:10.1093/oep/53.3.541.

Bellù, L. G., & Liberati, P. (2006). Policy impacts on inequality: Welfare based measures of inequality – —The Atkinson index. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.

Booth, A. (2019). Measuring poverty and income distribution in Southeast Asia. Asian-Pacific Economic Literature, 33(1), 3-–20. https://doi.org/:10.1111/apel.12250.

Branch, J., & Collins, E. (2020, April). Research during a pandemic: Leaner and faster poverty measurement in the time of COVID-19. Innovations for Poverty Action. Retrieved from https://www.poverty-action.org/blog/research-during-pandemic-leaner-and-faster-poverty-measurement-time-covid-19.

Bresciani-Turroni, C. (1939). Annual survey of statistical data: Pareto’s law and the index of inequality incomes. Econometrica, 7(2), 107-–133. Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/1906835.

Brewer, M., & O’Dea C. (2012). Measuring living standards with income and consumption: Evidence from the UK (ISER Working Paper No. 2012-05). Institute for Social & Economic Research. Retrieved from https://www.iser.essex.ac.uk/research/publications/working-papers/iser/2012-05.pdf.

Carter, A. (2012). How tax can reduce inequality. OECD Observer. Retrieved from https://oecdobserver.org/news/fullstory.php/aid/3782/How_tax_can_reduce_inequality.html.

Clark, S., Hemming, R., & Ulph, D. (1981). On indices for the measurement of poverty. The Economic Journal, 91(362), 515-–526. Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/2232600.

Collas-Monsod, S., & Monsod, T. (1999). International and intranational comparisons of Philippine poverty. In A. M. Balisacan, & S. Fujisaki (Eds.), Causes of poverty: Myths, facts and policies – —A Philippine study (pp. 51-–93). University of the Philippines Press.

Conchada, M. I. P., & Rivera, J. P. R. (2013). Assessing the impacts of the food and non-food grant on poverty alleviation in the Philippines: The case of Pasay city. Malaysian Journal of Economic Studies, 50(1), 53-–78. Retrieved from https://mjes.um.edu.my/article/view/2868.

Conchada, M. I. P., & Tiongco, M. M. (2017). Making social health insurance and micro-savings programs work for the informal sector in the Philippines. DLSU Business & Economics Review, 27(1), 107-–123. Retrieved from https://ejournals.ph/article.php?id=11587.

Coronel, S. (2020, March). Philippines: Covid-19 will devastate the poor. The Low Institute. Retrieved from https://www.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/philippines-covid-19-will-devastate-poor.

Corong, E. C., Dacuycuy, L. B., Reyes, R. C., & Taningco, A.B. (2013). The growth and distributive impacts of public infrastructure investments in the Philippines. In J. Cockburn, Y. Dissou, J. Y. Duclos, & L. Tiberti (Eds.), Infrastructure and economic growth in Asia: Economic studies in inequality, social exclusion and well-being. Springer. https://doi.org/:10.1007/978-3-319-03137-8_3.

Cudia, C. P. (2014). Poverty alleviation in the Philippines through entrepreneurship: An empirical analysis. Asia Pacific Business & Economics Perspectives, 2(2), 58-–70. Retrieved from http://apbersociety.org/Asia_Pacific_Business_and_Economics_Research_Society/Journal_files/Cudia2014.pdf.

Cudia, C. P (2016). Factors affecting transient and chronic poverty in the Philippines. Asia-Pacific Business & Economics Perspectives, 4(2), 27-–39. Retrieved from http://apbersociety.org/Asia_Pacific_Business_and_Economics_Research_Society/Journal_files/Cudia2017.pdf.

Cudia, C. P., Rivera, J. P. R., & Tullao, T. S. (2019). Alleviating poverty in the Philippines through entrepreneurship. DLSU Business & Economics Review, 28(3), 121-–130. Retrieved from http://dlsu-ber.com/alleviating-poverty-in-the-philippines-through-entrepreneurship/.

Dalton, H. (1920). The measurement of the inequality of incomes. The Economic Journal, 30(119), 348-–361. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/2223525.

De Maio, F. G. (2007). Income inequality measures. Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health, 61(10), 849-–852. https:// doi.org/:10.1136/jech.2006.052969.

de Vera, B. O. (2019, October). PH poverty rate seen falling below 20% starting 2020. The Philippine Daily Inquirer. Retrieved from https://business.inquirer.net/281269/ph-poverty-rate-seen-falling-below-20-starting-2020.

de Vera, B. O.(2020a, January). GDP growth falls to an eight-year low of 5.9% in 2019. The Philippine Daily Inquirer. Retrieved from https://business.inquirer.net/288802/gdp-growth-fell-to-eight-year-low-of-5-9-in-2019.

de Vera, B. O. (2020b, May). PH adds $1.25B in loans to war chest vs COVID-19. The Philippine Daily Inquirer. Retrieved from https://business.inquirer.net/298615/ph-adds-1-25b-in-loans-to-war-chest-vs-covid-19.

Deaton, A. (1997). The analysis of household surveys. Johns Hopkins University Press.

Dercon, S. (2001). Assessing vulnerability to poverty. Oxford University. Retrieved from http://www.economics.ox.ac.uc/members/stefan.dercon.

Estudillo, J. P. (1997). Income inequality in the Philippines, 1961-91. The Developing Economies, 35(1), 68-–95. https://doi.org/:10.1111/j.1746-1049.1997.tb01187.x.

Fiestada, J. O., De La Rosa, C. J., & Mangahas, M. (2018, July). Stats on the state of the regions: Hubs of wealth, ponds of poverty. Philippine Center for Investigative Journalism. Retrieved from https://pcij.org/article/1409/stats-on-the-state-of-the-regions-hubs-of-wealth-ponds-of-poverty.

Flora, I. O. (2017, March). Philippines ‘rice granary’ heading toward industrialization. SunStar Philippines. Retrieved from https://www.sunstar.com.ph/article/132887.

Florini, A., & Pauli, M. (2018). Collaborative governance for the Sustainable Development Goals. Asia & the Pacific Policy Studies, 5(3), 583-–598. https://doi.org/:10.1002/app5.252.

Foster, J. E., & Shorrocks, A. F. (1985). Transfer sensitive inequality measures (Economics Discussion Paper No. 264). University of Essex.

Foster, J., Greer, J., & Thorbecke, E. (1984). A class of decomposable poverty measures. Econometrica, 52(3), 761–765. Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/1913475.

Gaerlan, C. S. (2015, June). The difference between Manila and Metro Manila. Retrieved from https://www.expatch.org/2015/06/15/the-difference-between-manila-and-metro-manila/.

Garcia, E. M., Francisco, J. P. S., & Caboverde, C. E. C. The state of shared prosperity in the Philippines. Asian Institute of Management. http://dx.doi.org/:10.2139/ssrn.2829257.

Gavilan, J. (2017, May). FAST FACTS: Poverty in Mindanao. Rappler. Retrieved from https://www.rappler.

com/newsbreak/iq/171135-fast-facts-poverty-mindanao.

Giaccardi, F. (1950), ). Un criterio per la costruzione di indici di concentrazione. Rivista Italiana di Economia, Demografia e Statistica, 4, 527–538.

Gini, C. (1921). Measurement of inequality of incomes. The Economic Journal, 31(121), 124-–126. https://doi.org/:10.2307/2223319.

Gita-Carlos, R. A. (2020, March). P150-B funds to be realigned for Covid-19 response: Palace. Philippine News Agency. Retrieved from Philippine News Agency website https://www.pna.gov.ph/articles/1103761.

Glewwe, P. (1990). The measurement of income inequality under inflation: Correction formulae for three inequality measures. Journal of Development Economics, 32(1), 43-–67. https://doi.org/:10.1016/0304-3878(90)90051-C.

Goldsmith, C. (2018, August). The paradox of the Philippines’ ecotourism sector. Business Destinations. Retrieved from https://www.businessdestinations.com/destinations/the-paradox-of-the-philippines-ecotourism-sector/.

Graaff, J. (1957). Theoretical welfare economics. Cambridge University Press.

Grosh, M. E., & Glewwe, P. (1998). Data watch: The World Bank’s living standards measurement study household surveys. The Journal of Economic Perspectives, 12(1), 187-–196. Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/2646946.

Hagenaars, A. (1987). A class of poverty indices. International Economic Review, 28(3), 583-–607. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/2526568.

Haque, M. O., & Haque, T. (2015). Dimensions and measurement of living standards: Commentary. Review of Public Administration and Management, 3(1). https://doi.org/:10.4172/2315-7844.1000168.

Heinemann, A. (2019, August). Why I’m optimistic we can achieve SDG #1 – —ending poverty in all its forms, everywhere. Asian Development Blog. Retrieved from https://blogs.adb.org/blog/why-i-m-optimistic-we-can-achieve-sdg-1-ending-poverty-all-its-forms-everywhere.

Hicks, J. R. (1940). The valuation of social income. Economica, 7(26), 105-–124. Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/2548691.

Hicks, J. R. (1958). The measurement of real income`. Oxford Economic Papers, 10(2), 125-–162. Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/2662090.

Inequality. (1986). Bulletin of Economic Research, 38(4), 279-–299. https://doi.org/:10.1111/j.1467-8586.1986.tb00224.x.

Jao, C. S., Ng, C. N., & Vicente, S. C. (2000). Welfare, distribution and poverty: A national update and interregional analysis (Undergraduate thesis). De La Salle University, Manila.=

Jenkins, S. P., & Van Kerm, P. (2011). The measurement of economic inequality. In B. Nolan, W. Salverda, & T. M. Smeeding (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of economic inequality. Oxford Handbooks Online. https://doi.org/:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199606061.013.0003.

Josa, I., & Aguado, A. (2020). Measuring unidimensional inequality: Practical framework for the choice of an appropriate measure. Social Indicators Research, 149, 541-–570. https://doi.org/:10.1007/s11205-020-02268-0

Kabiling, G. (2020, April). Gov’t continues to source funds for COVID-19 response strategies. Manila Bulletin. Retrieved from https://news.mb.com.ph/2020/04/13/govt-continues-to-source-funds-for-covid-19-response-strategies/.

Kakwani, N. (1980). On a class of poverty measures. Econometrica, 48(2), 437-–446. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/1911106.

Kakwani, N. (1981). Welfare measures: An international comparison. Journal of Development Economics, 8(1), 21-–45. https://doi.org/:10.1016/0304-3878(81)90044-4.

Kakwani, N.(1986). Analyzing redistribution policies: A study using Australian data. Cambridge University Press.

Kakwani, N. (1990). Testing for significance of poverty differences: With application to Côte d`Ivoire (LSMS Working Paper 62). World Bank. Retrieved from https://ideas.repec.org/p/fth/wobali/62.html.

Kaldor, N. (1939). Welfare propositions and interpersonal comparisons of utility. Economic Journal, 49(195), 549-–552. Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/2224835

Kapahi, A. D., & Tañada, G. (2018). The Bangsamoro identity struggle and the Bangsamoro Basic Law as the path to peace. Counter Terrorist Trends and Analyses, 10(7), 1-–7. Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/26458484.

Lalu, G. P. (2020, June). PH has P6.5 billion in donations for the fight against COVID-19 – —WHO. The Philippine Daily Inquirer. Retrieved from https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/1288898/ph-has-received-p6-5-billion-worth-of-donations-for-fight-against-covid-19-who.

Lara, F. J., & Schoofs, S. (Eds.). (2016). Out of the shadows: Violent conflict and the real economy of Mindanao. Ateneo de Manila University Press. Retrieved from http://www.ateneo.edu/ateneopress/product/out-shadows-violent-conflict-and-real-economy-mindanao.

Leyco, C. S. (2020, March). WB warns COVID-19 to slow PH economy significantly. Manila Bulletin. Retrieved from https://business.mb.com.ph/2020/03/31/wb-warns-covid-19-to-slow-ph-economy-significantly/.

Limos, M. A. (2020, April). Finally, here’s a breakdown of the government`s P275 billion Covid fund. Microsoft News. Retrieved from https://www.msn.com/en-ph/money/other/finally-heres-a-breakdown-of-governments-p275-billion-covid-fund/ar-BB126z8i.

Little, I. M. D. (1950). A critique of welfare economics. Clarendon Press.

Lorenz, M. O. (1905). Methods of measuring the concentration of wealth. Publications of the American Statistical Association, 9(70), 209-–219. https://doi.org/:10.2307/2276207.

Mehran, F. (1976). Linear measures of income inequality. Econometrica, 44(4), 805-–809. Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/1913446.

Mojares, J. G. (2013). Urbanization and its effect in the CALABARZON area, Philippines. Journal of Global Intelligence & Policy, 6(10), 24-–40.

Montgomery, M. R., Gragnolati, M., Burke, K. A., & Paredes, E. (2000). Measuring living standards with proxy variables. Demography, 37(2), 155-–174. Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/2648118.

Morduch, J. (1998). Poverty, economic growth, and average exit time. Economics Letters, 59(3), 385–390. https://doi.org/https:// doi.org/:10.1016/S0165-1765(98)00070-6.

National Economic and Development Authority (NEDA). (2017). Expanding economic opportunities in agriculture, forestry, and fisheries. Socioeconomic Report 2017. Retrieved from https://www.neda.gov.ph/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/SER-Chap-8_as-of-March-27.pdf.

Nygard, F., & Sandstrom, A. (1981). Measuring income inequality. Almqvist and Wiksell.

Ocampo, K. R. (2019, April). PH is now one of world’s top agri-tourism destinations. Philippine Daily Inquirer. Retrieved from https://business.inquirer.net/269437/ph-now-one-of-worlds-top-agri-tourism-destinations.

Philippine Statistics Authority (PSA). (2019, April). Poverty statistics in ARMM. Retrieved from http://rssoarmm.psa.gov.ph/sites/default/files/016%20Poverty%20Statistics%20in%20ARMM%20%281st%20Semester%202018%29_2.pdf

Piesch, W. (1975). Statistische konzentrationsmasse. JCB Mohr-Paul Siebeck.

Pietra, G. (1948). Studi de statistica metodologica. Giuffre.

Punongbayan, J. C. (2017, January). The problem with our tax system and how it affects us. Rappler. Retrieved from https://www.rappler.com/thought-leaders/159027-philippine-tax-system-problems-effects-filipinos.

Pyatt, G. (1987). Measuring welfare, poverty, and inequality. The Economic Journal, 97(386), 459-–467. Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/2232890.

Raya, R. R. (2001). An alternative measure of poverty and human capability: Introducing the Quality of Life Index. Social Watch – Philippines. Retrieved from https://www.aer.ph/pdf/sw2001/articlei2001_phi.pdf.

Remo, A. R. (2016, August). 4 of 10 Filipinos are caught in a vicious cycle of poverty. The Philippine Daily Inquirer. Retrieved from https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/809494/4-of-10-filipinos-caught-in-vicious-cycle-of-poverty.

Reyes, C. M., Tabuga, A. D., Mina, C. D., Asis, R. D., & Datu, M. G. (2010). Are we winning the fight against poverty? An assessment of the poverty situation in the Philippines (Discussion Paper Series No. 2010-26). Philippine Institute for Development Studies. Retrieved from https://ideas.repec.org/p/phd/dpaper/dp_2010-26.html.

Rivas, R. (2019, May). IN CHARTS: Rich Philippine regions get richer, poor ones barely improve. Rapper. Retrieved from https://www.rappler.com/business/231871-charts-regions-get-richer-poor-ones-barely-improve-philippines.

Rivas, R. (2020, January). Philippines misses GDP growth target for 2019. Rappler. Retrieved from https://www.rappler.com/business/249977-gross-domestic-product-philippines-q4-2019.

Rivera, J. P. R. (2015). A repeated cross-section and pseudo panel analysis of alleviating poverty in developing economies: The Philippine case. Journal of Economics and Economic Education Research, 16(1), 235-–257. Retrieved from https://www.abacademies.org/articles/jeeervol16no12015.pdf.

Rivas, R.. (2020a). Estimating Gini coefficient and FGT indices in the Philippines using the Family Income and Expenditure Survey. Journal of Poverty. https://doi.org/:10.1080/10875549.2020.1737300.

Rivas, R. (2020b). A non-parametric approach to assessing poverty incidence in the Philippines: Evidence from the Family Income and Expenditure Survey. Manuscript submitted for publication.

Rivera, J. P. R., & Gutierrez, E. L. M. (2016). Pagsusuri sa lagay ng distribusyon ng kita sa mga rehiyon ng Filipinas gamit ang Sarbey ng Kita at Paggasta ng Pamahayan. MALAY, 29(1), 97–109. Retrieved from https://ejournals.ph/article.php?id=10771.

Rivera, J. P. R.., & See, K. G. S. (2012). The role of education and government sponsored programs in limiting family size in Pasay, Eastern Samar, and Agusan del Sur. DLSU Business & Economics Review, 21(2), 17-–36. Retrieved from https://ejournals.ph/article.php?id=6436.

Rosenblatt, M. (1956). Remarks on some nonparametric estimates of a density function. The Annals of Mathematical Statistics, 27(3), 832-–837. Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/2237390.

Saisana, M. (2014). Watts poverty index. In A. C. Michalos (Ed.), Encyclopedia of quality of life and well-being research (pp. 7011-–7013). Springer. https://doi.org/:10.1007/978-94-007-0753-5_3197.

Sala-i-Martin, X. (2006). The world distribution of income: Falling poverty and… convergence, period. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 121(2), 351-–397. Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/25098796.

Santos, A. P. (2020, April). Poverty is punished as the Philippines gets tough on the virus pandemic. Aljazeera. Retrieved from https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/04/poverty-punished-philippines-tough-virus-pandemic-200413063921536.html.

Scott, K., Steele, D., & Temesgen, T. (2005). Living standards measurement study surveys. In Household sample surveys in developing and transition countries (pp. 523-–556). Department of Economic and Social Affairs, United Nations Secretariat. Retrieved from https://unstats.un.org/unsd/hhsurveys/pdf/Household_surveys.pdf.

Sen, A. K. (1973). On economic inequality. Clarendon Press.

Sen, A. K.(1976). Poverty: An ordinal approach to measurement. Econometrica, 44(2), 219-–231. Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/1912718.

Sen, A. K.(1984). The living standard. Oxford Economic Papers, 36, 74-–90. Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/2662838

Senate Economic Planning Office (SEPO). (2006). 2nd quarter economic report: Infrastructure spending and Philippine development. Economic Report. Retrieved from https://www.senate.gov.ph/publications/ER%202006-04%20-%20Q2%20ER%20-%20Infrastructure%20Spending%20and%20Philippine%20Development.pdf.

Serrat, O. (2017). Theories of change. In Knowledge Solutions (pp. 237-–243). Springer. https://doi.org/:10.1007/978-981-10-0983-9_24.

Shorrocks, A. F. (1980). The class of additively decomposable inequality measures. Econometrica, 48(3), 613–625. https://doi.org/:10.2307/1913126.

Sen, A. K. (1995). Revisiting the Sen poverty index. Econometrica, 63(5), 1225-–1230. Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/2171728.

Takayama, N. (1979). Poverty, income inequality and their measures: Professor Sen’s axiomatic approach reconsidered. Econometrica, 47(3), 747-–759. Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/1910420.

Theil, H. (1967). Economics and information theory. North-Holland Publishing Company.

Takayama, N. (1972). Statistical decomposition analysis. North-Holland Publishing Company.

Thon, D. (1979). On measuring poverty. Review of Income and Wealth, 25(4), 429-–439. https://doi.org/:10.1111/j.1475-4991.1979.tb00117.x.

Takayama, N.. (1982). An axiomatization of the Gini coefficient. Mathematical Social Science, 2(2), 131-–143. https://doi.org/:10.1016/0165-4896(82)90062-2.

Takayama, N.. (1983). A note on a troublesome axiom for poverty indices. The Economic Journal, 93(369), 199-–200. https://doi.org/:10.2307/2232174.

Tiongco, M. M. (Ed.). (2016). Pathways out of poverty. De La Salle University Publishing House. Retrieved from https://www.dlsu.edu.ph/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/complete_final_for_printing_pathways_poverty_102516-min.pdf.

Todaro, M. P., & Smith, S. C. (2015). Economic development (12th editioned.). Pearson South Asia Pte. Ltd.

Tsakloglou, P. (1993). Aspects of inequality in Greece: Measurement, decomposition and intertemporal change: 1974, 1982. Journal of Development Economics, 40(1), 53-–74. https://doi.org/:10.1016/0304-3878(93)90104-U.

Valencia, C. (2019, April). Poverty incidence drops to 21%. The Philippine Star. Retrieved from https://www.philstar.com/headlines/2019/04/11/1909111/poverty-incidence-drops-21.

Van Kerm, P. (2007). INEQUAL7: Module to compute measures of inequality. Retrieved from http://fmwww.bc.edu/RePEc/bocode/i.

Wagle, U. (2018). Rethinking poverty: Definition and measurement. International Social Science Journal, 68(227-–228), 183-–193. https://doi.org/:10.1111/issj.12192.

Wagstaff, A., & van Doorslaer, E. (1992). Equity in the finance of health care: Some international comparisons. Journal of Health Economics, 11(4), 361-–387. https://doi.org/:10.1016/0167-6296(92)90012-P.

Warwick, M. K. (2018, May). The Philippines can overcome poverty. Making growth work for the poor: A poverty assessment for the Philippines. World Bank. Retrieved from https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/speech/2018/05/30/the-philippines-can-overcome-poverty.

Watts, H. W. (1964). An economic definition of poverty, institute for research on poverty. University of Wisconsin.

World Bank (WB). (n.d.). Living Standards Measurement Study (LSMS). Retrieved from https://microdata.worldbank.org/index.php/catalog/lsms/about.

World Bank (2019, October). Philippines economic update October 2019. Retrieved from https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/philippines/publication/philippines-economic-update-october-2019-edition#:~:text=Poverty%20 reduction%20is%20expected%20to,%2C%20and%2018.7%25%20in%202021.

  Cited by:
     None...